coexistence among livestock, people, and predators
Scientific research shows that killing wolves, coyotes, or other predators does not typically reduce future predation events, and can even lead to increased conflicts. Where livestock and predators overlap there will always be some domestic animals lost to wild predators as an element of Nature. However, this amounts to much less than other factors such as transportation, birthing complications, poisonous plants, and even domestic dogs.
Whether killing is done in response to a predation event or pre-emptively, (i.e. before a conflict occurs), lethal removal has been shown to increase predator populations and also increase the likelihood that problems with livestock will begin.
There are several factors which can contribute to increased problems. For instance, killing disrupts stable social groups, which can lead to: smaller packs with smaller territories, more dispersing individuals, increased breeding and subsequent increased food demands. All of these factors can contribute to a more dense population. Killing predators has also been shown to result in a younger population demographic, with less experience and limited knowledge and ability to hunt natural prey.
Non-lethal, proactive practices can help prevent and minimize predation events on livestock. For example, prompt removal of attractants such as dead and sick domestic animals from pastures helps to prevent attracting predators to the area, thus avoid food-conditioning predators to deadstock. Frequent monitoring, provided by range riders, shepherds, and guardian animals, is another significant factor in maintaining healthy domestic animals while preventing predation. Various tools and methods, when used properly, have demonstrated success at reducing conflicts among livestock, people, and predators.
Learn more through the Rancher's Guide to Coexistence.
references and resources
Below we provide a list of some useful references and resources to learn more and share with otheres.
PREVENTION
Khorozyan, I., & Waltert, M. (2019). A framework of most effective practices in protecting human assets from predators. Human Dimensions of Wildlife, 24(4), 380–394.
Study provides findings and recommendations for most effective interventions after comparing the effectiveness of 12 interventions used to protect livestock from 21 predators.
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Stone, S.A., Breck, S.W., Timberlake, J., Haswell, P.M., Najera, F., Bean, B.S. and Thornhill, D.J., (2017). Adaptive use of nonlethal strategies for minimizing wolf–sheep conflict in Idaho. Journal ofMammalogy, 98(1), pp.33-44.
Provide evidence that proactive use of a variety of nonlethal techniques applied conditionally can help reduce depredation of sheep on large open-range operations.
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Musiani, M., Muhly, T., Gates, C. C., & Callaghan, C. (2005). Seasonality and reoccurrence of depredation and wolf control in western North America. Wildlife Society Bulletin. 33 (3), 876-887
Identified seasonal patterns of wolves and conflicts with livestock to help plan more sound management actions, focusing investment of resources to prevent wolf depredation increases during high-depredation seasons.
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Van Eeden, L.M., Crowther, M.S., Dickman, C.R., Macdonald, D.W., Ripple, W.J., Ritchie, E.G. and Newsome, T.M., (2018). Managing conflict between large carnivores and livestock. ConservationBiology, 32(1), pp.26-34.
Studied the effectiveness of practices used around the world to reduce conflict with large carnivores, and shows nonlethal methods are effective at reducing livestock losses.
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Treves, A., Krofel, M., and J. McManus. (2016). Predator control should not be a shot in the dark. FrontEcol Environ. 14(7): 380–388.
Call for more evidence-based management practices. Describe a lack of evidence to support killing as an effective method to reduce conflict with livestock, and only evidence for two non-lethal methods thus far.
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Louchouarn NX, Treves A. (2023). Low-stress livestock handling protects cattle in a five-predator habitat. PeerJ. 11:e14788. doi: 10.7717/peerj.14788.
killing is ineffective / short term
Lennox, R.J., Gallagher, A.J., Ritchie, E.G. and Cooke, S.J., 2018. Evaluating the efficacy of predator removal in a conflict-prone world. Biological Conservation, 224, pp.277-289.
Summary: This literature review indicates predator removal appeared effective only for the short-term, failing in the absence of sustained predator suppression. Predator removal was typically an ineffective and costly approach to conflicts between humans and predators.
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van Eeden, L. M., Eklund, A., Miller, J. R B., López-Bao, J. V., Chapron, G., Cejtin, M. R., et al. (2018). Carnivore conservation needs evidence-based livestock protection. PLoS Biol. 16:e2005577. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.2005577
Summary: Shows how little evidence exists for the effectiveness of lethal interventions.
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Elbroch, L. M., & Treves, A. (2023). Perspective: Why might removing carnivores maintain or increase risks for domestic animals?. Biological Conservation, 283, 110106.
Summary: Authors propose five hypotheses for why lethal removals could fail to mitigate livestock-carnivore conflict and discuss the potential consequences for communities with livestock following the killing of carnivores.
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GREY WOLVES
Santiago-Avila, F.J., Cornman, A.M. and Treves, A., 2018. Killing wolves to prevent predation on livestock may protect one farm but harm neighbors. PloS one, 13(1).
Corrections notice: https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0209716
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Wielgus, R.B. and Peebles, K.A., 2014. Effects of wolf mortality on livestock depredations. PloS one, 9(12).
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Fernandez-Gil, A., Naves, J., Ordiz, A., Quevedo, M., Revilla, E. and Delibes, M., 2016. Conflict misleads large carnivore management and conservation: brown bears and wolves in Spain. PLoS One, 11(3).
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Treves, A., Bruskotter, J. T., Elbroch, L. M., & Proulx, G. (2024). Evaluating fact claims accompanying policies to liberalize the killing of wolves. Wildlife Conservation & Management in The 21st Century–Issues, Solutions, and New Concepts. Canada: Alpha Wildlife Publications, 1-22.
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COUGARS
Peebles, K.A., Wielgus, R.B., Maletzke, B.T. and Swanson, M.E., 2013. Effects of remedial sport hunting on cougar complaints and livestock depredations. PloS one, 8(11).
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MESOPREDATORS - e.g. Coyotes
Nattrass, N., Conradie, B., Stephens, J. and Drouilly, M., 2019. Culling recolonizing mesopredators increases livestock losses: Evidence from the South African Karoo. Ambio, pp.1-10.
Summary: Study shows lethal control of mesopredators was associated with increased livestock losses the following year. Terrain ruggedness was positively, and number of farmworkers negatively, associated with livestock losses….further evidence that lethal control of mesopredators in this context is probably counter-productive and supports calls to develop, share and financially support a range of non-lethal methods to protect livestock.
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Moll, R. J., Green, A. M., Allen, M. L., & Kays, R. (2024). People or predators? comparing habitat‐dependent effects of hunting and large carnivores on the abundance of North America’s top mesocarnivore. 'Ecography', 2025.
Summary: Findings expand results from local studies suggesting that directly hunting coyotes does not decrease their abundance and may actually increase it.
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McManus, J.S., Dickman, A.J., Gaynor, D., Smuts, B.H. and Macdonald, D.W., 2015. Dead or alive? Comparing costs and benefits of lethal and non-lethal human–wildlife conflict mitigation on livestock farms. Oryx, 49(4), pp.687-695.
Summary: Study shows non-lethal efforts (S. African mesopredators and leopards)can reduce predation and can be economically advantageous compared to lethal methods of predator control.
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
People and Carnivores is a group of specialists that work with producers in conflict prevention, using a wide array of tools and practices to remove attractants from the landscape or keep wild carnivores away.
TOOL RESOURCE GUIDE . (2018). An Overview of Tools and Best Practices for Human-Carnivore Conflict Prevention. Published by People and Carnivores.
Managing Conflict: Coexistence with Bears, Cougars, and Wolves A literature reference
Prevention tools for specific carnivore species: https://peopleandcarnivores.org/prevention-tools
More research and Manuals: https://peopleandcarnivores.org/research-and-manuals